Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are increasingly common among older adults, and they are often associated with physiological ageing processes, such as muscle loss, decreased bone density, and changes in joint structure and function. This natural ageing process can contribute to MSDs, namely osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and Sarcopenia. An analysis of the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) in 2019 estimated 1.71 billion people have developed MSDs worldwide. Accordingly, it is compulsory to highlight MSDs as they have critical adverse outcomes, including the risk of fractures, functional decline, frailty, and mortality.

For example, Osteoporosis is a quantitative metabolic bone disease that, on a cellular level, results in an imbalance between osteoclastic bone resorption and osteoblastic bone formation. Traditional pathophysiological concepts include low dietary intake of Calcium or Vitamin D, mainly focusing on endocrine mechanisms; however, recent research goes far beyond this. Mechanisms such as interactions between bone and immunity and cellular senescence attracted a growing area of research interest in this field.

In addition, Sarcopenia, or age-related muscle loss, is a frequent physiological change that contributes to developing MSDs. It leads to a decline in the size and mass of the muscle due to the decrease in the cross-sectional area of the fibres. Even though nearly 25% of 65+ year-olds develop sarcopenia, there is still yet no confirmatory diagnosis tool for it. This has attracted many researchers in the field to conduct meta-analysis using cohort and cross-sectional studies to assess the efficacy of different ways of diagnosis.

Osteoarthritis(OA), or “wear and tear arthritis” is a degenerative joint disease. OA was classified as a leading musculoskeletal cause of impaired mobility of the elderly. Taking this into consideration, accurate molecular and chemical causes or mechanisms that degrade cartilage are vague.

This review aims to i) highlight discovered molecular mechanisms that contribute to osteoporosis and how these mechanisms contribute to its pathophysiology, ii) accentuate possible ways of diagnosing sarcopenia and which is most accurate and reliable according to meta-analyses, and iii) summarise the precise molecular mechanisms involved in OA pathogenesis